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RACISM
A research paper into the issue of Racism and counselling, noting areas that will be of particular importance to a counsellor, and presenting guidelines for effectively helping a young person through the issue.
This paper will present guidelines to a counsellor of young people who is attempting to deal with the issue of racism. It is written in such a way as to be a resource document for youth counsellors, and specifically for those youth workers who are involved in more than just counselling, within a youth environment.
The issue of racism could be broadened to include all forms of discrimination (e.g. against women, handicapped people, etc), and could also focus more closely to deal with hatred of ethnic groups. The former will not be dealt with, as this assignment is specifically on racial prejudice and discrimination. The concepts and principles, however, are applicable to other types of prejudice as well. The latter will be dealt with below.
One of the key problems in dealing with the issue of racism is to actually define what racism is. Unless the counsellor and counsellee can actually identify the nature of the problem, no solution can be found. The problem with this is that racism is an illusive issue. Lynne Duke states correctly that "blacks and whites tend not to agree on what racism is, where it is, and the extent to which it plays a role in how black people fare". In recent years, there has been much debate about it.
To most people, race is characterised by the shade of colour of one’s skin, the texture and colour of one’s hair, the size of the lips, the shape of the eyes, the size of the brow and bridge of one’s nose, and other such external features. It has been proved, however, in recent years, that there is no significant genetic differences between the races. In fact, "the more we learn about humankind’s genetic differences… the more we see that they have almost nothing to do with what we call race" (Begley 1995:44). Further, the biological and physical differences cited above are not as clear cut as it may seem. The large lips and nose of "black" Africans are not generic to all African nations (e.g. north African blacks do not exhibit it), and it is a common feature of Eskimos and South American Indians. The slit eyes of the Asians are also common in South American Indians and San-Bushmen. Thus, these, too, are not clear race markers. Language is also obviously not a clear indicator (the use of Afrikaans as a common language in South Africa, especially by the Coloured community is a good example).
It is beyond the scope of this paper to deal with the anthropological analysis of race. It has, however, been proposed that race is a purely sociological creation. It is much more correct to talk of geographic ethnicity, or of cultural groupings. With this background, we must now attempt to define what racism (or, maybe more correctly "ethnicism") is. It may be helpful to understand why this is necessary by looking at what racism is not. Reese states that "mere prejudice does not equal hatred" (1997). He explains that if someone believes that a black person can jump higher than a white, he is prejudiced towards the black person, but is not necessarily racist in his statement (especially if the statement is empirically correct). "Prejudice, then, does not equate to hatred and may or may not be harmful to others. Some people, though prejudiced, treat others fairly and even with compassion" (1997). Thus, racism is not having (substantiated) opinions about another race or ethnic group.
According to the US Air Force Discrimination Policy (
It is important to note that the concept of racism as a whole encompasses institutional racism, which an individual (especially a teenager) has very little control over. Thus, the remainder of this paper will focus more specifically on individual acts of racist behaviour, and individual racist attitudes. One of the most important starting points in all counselling is that the individual be able to take responsibility for his or her own actions, and also set goals that do not depend on other people to attain (cf. Olson 1984:158). Thus, the definition of the problem, for counselling purposes, must relate to the individual, and his or her personal attitudes and behaviour.
The importance of having the correct definition of racism is highlighted in the quotation below by Bruce N. Simon, who proposes a narrative method of dealing with the problem that we shall examine in more detail later:
[W]e can and should make the case that race is above all a social fiction. Literary critics are accustomed to the idea that fictions can have real effects, that they are not merely lies or deceptions or illusions or fallacies. If we think of race as a kind of narrative, then all the traditional lit. crit. questions--what's the story about? who's telling it? what relation to the story does the teller have? for what end is this story being told? what does the teller hope to accomplish in the act of telling the story? for which audiences? which character is the audience meant to identify with? in what ways can the audience take up this narrative outside of authorial intent?--become immediately applicable to issues of "race." If we think of race as something in part performed, we can take the idea of social "roles" back to its theatrical roots. Thinking of race as a fiction can help us understand what Patricia Williams has called "the persistence of prejudice," for a powerful fiction has a much longer shelf life than any commodity (
http://www.princeton.edu/~bnsimon/race.html).The key problem with counselling racism is that most people will not feel the need to be counselled. Unlike many other issues that will affect young people, it is unlikely that in the natural course of their lives, they will be confronted with their racism. Even if they are, they are unlikely to feel overwhelmed or debilitated by it, as they may with other presenting problems that would lead them to seek counselling. Thus, it should be understood that the counselling of racism is only likely to take place within an environment where the issue of racism is being addressed within the group as a whole, and possibly within Bible Studies and from the pulpit as well. Appendix A contains a suggested youth group activity that will highlight the issue of racism. This activity needs to be followed up with a lot of teaching and challenge on the issue, such as the Bible Studies in Appendix D.
Thus, unlike many other problem areas where the counsellee will usually make the first approach to be counselled, the issue of racism is likely to be one that is being dealt with in a challenging environment within the youth group and church. The youth leaders must then make themselves available for counselling and discipling in this area. At first, such counselling may be at an intellectual, rather than emotional level. The strategy outlined below includes many elements of discipleship, and is more goal-specific than other areas of counselling may be. This seems to be a necessary approach for a problem that is so systemic, and less emotional and "personal" to the teenager.
Following Olson’s simple counselling model, the following points will be of help to a counsellor.
The Women Against Racism Committee has defined racism under four distinct categories, which are very useful in identifying the exact problem of the counsellee.
(http://www.avalon.net/~foshe/racism.htm)
It is essential that very quickly in the counselling process, the exact nature of the problem is identified by both counsellor and counsellee. The initial issue may present itself in terms of a specific incident that is now bringing racist attitudes to the fore. For example, the counsellee may be having romantic or sexual feelings towards someone of a different racial group, and this makes them nervous. Or they may be finding it difficult to relate to people of other races, where they thought it would be easy. These will present as emotional experiences, and the foundation of the racist attitude must be explored. On the other hand, the young person may just be wanting to deal intellectually with the issue of racism because of the emphasis on it at youth group. If this is the case, then the person should be exposed to situations where possible racist attitudes can be exposed and experienced.
Appendix B lists the assumptions that a group known as "Healing Racism Program" uses to create a non-racist basis for their actions. This list of assumptions is a useful one to use in counselling, possibly even to show the counsellee and ask whether they agree with each statement. This may be especially useful when it is a more intellectual approach to counselling the problem.
One of the key assumptions in counselling racism is the people aren't born prejudiced; they are influenced. It may be helpful to identify how racist attitudes are developed. A simple illustration can be given in how dogs respond to people of different races. In general, dogs in white areas bark at black visitors, and dogs in black areas bark at white visitors. However, dogs that have grown up with both black and white people regularly in the house, are unlikely to "discriminate" on the basis of race when barking at visitors. In a sense, therefore, dogs are "taught" to be racist. Humans are the same.
The following are some possible places this teaching can take place (taken from the US Air Force Discrimination Policy http://www.aetc.af.mil/sh-policy.html):
If the source of racist attitudes can be identified, this will make the next stages much easier, as they can be focussed specifically at this source. In many cases, this may just be misinformation. However, it is likely that these attitudes are now deep seated, and will take time and diligence to remove. Even if the counsellee is not able to clearly identify the source of racist attitudes, it will be good to begin some of the next steps fairly quickly.
The next step in Olson’s method is to assist the counsellee in setting goals that are realistic, measurable and attainable without relying on other people’s responses. Since racism is at heart a relational issue, this may be difficult. To resolve racist attitudes will involve a combination of correcting misinformation, assisting the young person overcome past hurts and hates (if these exist), overcoming fear, helping the young person develop better communication and relational skills, and then helping the young person practice these (see next section for some practical examples of homework). It is beyond the scope of this paper to deal with the counselling guidelines for all these related issues, but the counsellor should be aware that they may arise, and would need to be dealt with before and during dealing with the issue of racism.
Since the changing of attitudes is very hard to quantify, the best method of goal setting would be to set practical assignments, based on the counsellee’s particular problem area. This section will give some ideas, but the counsellor should not be limited to these. Note that many of the resources given in the appendices to this paper are for use in groups, and are best used to raise awareness of racism as an issue. Most of them can, however, be adapted for use in counselling sessions as such, and can be given as homework assignments.
The counsellee should set a goal to learn about another culture. This can be a positive, and fun assignment, including learning about the original country, the food, clothes and particular cultural mannerisms, as well the language and gestures used. Living conditions and geographical considerations should also be taken into account. The counsellee should see this as a means of getting information that will assist in understanding the culture, and formulating a means of interacting with that culture. This study can be done theoretically, using books and other resources, as well as by direct contact with people of that culture.
The next step would be for the counsellee to set a goal to deliberately make time to spend in another culture to simply experience that culture. This could be by attending a group, playing sport, visiting a person’s home, or numerous other methods of interacting within another culture. The counsellee could be encouraged to stay in a home of a different culture for a period of time. This could be anything from a day through a weekend, week, month or even a year. Experiences such as exchange programs for students could also be encouraged.
The counsellor may have to facilitate setting this experience up, and will need to be careful that it is a positive one, within a safe environment for growth in this area. If the counsellee has a negative experience, this should be dealt with immediately, and efforts made to learn from the experience.
Although this may not be something that can be immediately practically implemented, the following list may be useful in highlighting some possible ways of sensitising oneself to different cultures:
(taken from the US Air Force Discrimination Policy http://www.aetc.af.mil/sh-policy.html)
These all assume that there is regular contact between people of different cultures. This should be a goal for the counsellee.
One of the best ways to learn about another culture is to talk to people of different cultures. In a post-modern world, the role of story telling, and telling one’s own story, is resurfacing as a primary tool in many areas of life. This is equally applicable to dealing with racism. A quote above indicated that treating racial divisions as literary constructs can be useful, since literary criticism is taught at school. Thus, literary techniques can be applied to racial situations. The goal is to get the counsellee to interact with people from other racial groups, and to find common areas by speaking t each other about their lives, their backgrounds, likes, dislikes, dreams and desires. I specifically refer to this as "narrative" interaction, because it is much more intentional than simply talking. It is a deliberate desire to get to know each other’s histories and futures.
[W]e need greater knowledge, understanding, and openness to learning about each other’s histories and present needs as a basis for working together.… Sometimes the problem seems so clear. Last year I showed slides of Chicano history to a Oakland high school class with 47 African Americans and three Latino students. The images included lynchings and police beatings of Mexicans and other Latinos, and many years of resistance. At the end one Black student asked, "Seems like we have had a lot of experiences in common--so why can't Blacks and Mexicans get along better?" No answers, but there was the first step: asking the question.
from Seeing More Than Black & White (http://www.lbbs.org/ZMag/articles/mrtinez2.htm)
The next section (4.4.) highlights some of the Biblical data on racism. The counsellee can be encouraged to work through these Scriptures, either on their own, or as part of the counselling session. This approach will only work with someone committed to doing God’s will in their life. This will not be the case with all counsellees. Thus, this approach should only be used in conjunction with the others, and not as a total solution.
Appendices C and D can be used as youth study events, or even for individual study and reflection with the counsellor. Although this may take on more of a discipleship feel, that is acceptable within an ongoing relationship in a youth group, where the boundaries between counselling and discipleship are not as clear cut as in "professional" counselling.
Although this problem can be dealt with on a purely social and psychological level, Christian counselling is unique in its reliance upon the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is intimately involved in helping people become more Christ-like, and this will involve in removal of sins and barriers. Racism is a sin. Where necessary, Biblical backing may be required within the counselling situation. The following principles and passages will be of assistance in this case:
God’s vision for humanity is found in Rev. 7:9 "After this I looked and there before me was a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, tribe, people and language, standing before the throne and in front of the Lamb. They were wearing white robes and were holding palm branches in their hands" (NIV). This vision goes back to before the Fall. Different races, languages and cultures were only created at the Babel (Genesis 11), and then as a punishment for mankind’s disobedience. It may be true that the command to spread out over the earth (Gen. 1:28, 9:1) would have created ethnic groups, (although it hadn’t by Gen. 11:1), the creation of different languages by God, and the enmity between language groups was a curse by God. This curse has been lifted under the new covenant (Gal. 3:28).
Paul’s speech to the Athenian Areopagus in Acts 17:22-31 also sets a vision of a God who is in control of the nations and the races. In this speech, Paul made two claims that are important for this topic and which are substantiated throughout Scripture. (i) God is the Creator and created a unified human race. It is in this single God that every human being lives and moves and has being. All human beings are created in the image of God (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1; 9:6; James 3:9). (ii) God is a God of History and has overseen the diversity of ethnic culture (cf. Deut. 32:8). This affirms what we said above about prejudice and racism. Being loyal to one’s own ethnic background does not imply racism. These two should be carefully separated, so as to avoid the error that apartheid made in using this concept to segregate races. Racism seeks to degrade ethnicity, and to exalt one race above another. It is clear from the Scripture that God has not done this, but has worked in and through all races throughout history.
Jesus’ example of reaching out to all people, and the stories he told, such as the Good Samaritan, all point to a multi-racial approach to His ministry. There are some examples in Appendix C.
Finally, throughout Scripture there are references to God’s desire to see all the nations come to a saving knowledge of Him. This is seen in passages such as 1 Chron. 16:8, Ps. 22:27, 47:8, 67:4, 86:9, 96:10, 98:2, 102:15, Isa. 49:6, 60:5-11, 66:19-21, Jer. 4:2, 16:19-21, Mal. 1:11, and Rom. 15:12. God is a God of all nations, and we are all His people (Gal. 3:28).
The most basic tool a counsellor has is self and own self awareness (Coral Frangkis, conversation, April 1998). Thus, in order to effectively deal with the issue of racism, counsellors will have to confront and deal with their own racist attitudes and behaviours. This may be one of the most difficult parts of this process, but it cannot be circumvented. A racist counsellor will not be able to counsel someone else for racism. It is also not acceptable that a counsellor refuse to deal with this issue, as we have already seen the Biblical injunctions to do so. The suggestions and homework assignments above, should be honestly and meticulously completed by the counsellor, especially if the counsellor hidden racism in themselves.
In gathering information for this paper, I interacted with a number of people on a South African discussion forum (hosted by the Mail & Guardian). This forum discusses racism in many forms, and I anticipated a great response to my question on what people were practically doing to correct racism. I had only one practical response from a lecturer in an Australian university. It appears that most people (including "activists") are content to talk about racism, and bemoan its evil effects. But there are not too many people actively trying to change the racist attitudes of people around them. Talking about it is important, but it is not enough. This is where the church can have a profound cultural impact in South Africa.
For too long, the church (in general) sat back and did nothing about apartheid in South Africa. In fact, some churches actively supported it. Most churches are still racially homogenous today. Although this may not necessarily be racist, the world is looking on, waiting to see the what the church will do in the "new" South Africa. If we do not deal with the issue of latent racism, then our Christian message will not find a hearing among the people of South Africa. The issue of racism has not been dealt with by having a democratic election. It is very much alive and well, and will take many years of painstaking effort to resolve.
Appendix A
BaFa BaFA Simulation Game – A Youth Program
BaFa BaFa is a simulation game, that aims to let groups feel racist feelings towards each other, based on two hypothetical "cultures". In debriefing they will realise how racism can be based on misinformation and wrong perceptions, as well as understand how interaction can help overcome racial barriers.
MATERIALS:
Alpha Culture
Set of 3 cards: Stipper, Tibber and Blimmer 125% of total no. of people in Alpha *
Blank 3 x 5 cards Total number of people in simulation
Chips, any colour or size 10 x 125% of people in Alpha *
Alpha badges 125% of total number of people in Alpha
Rules for culture 1 per Alphan
Beta Culture
Card numbered 1 through 7 in 6 colours 125% of the number of Beta *
Beta badges 125% of total number of people in Beta
Rules for culture 1 per Betan
(* the extra 25% is for the visitors to the culture)
DUTIES OF THE DIRECTOR
1. Ensure all materials are in the appropriate place at the appropriate time.
2. Orientate the assistant director and make sure that he understands the duties.
3. Orientate all participants before the simulation begins.
4. Help the Alpha group select an observer.
5. Instruct the members of the Alpha Culture in the rules of their culture:-
6. Provide each member of Alpha with a set of matching cards (Blimmer, Tibber, Stipper), a 3 x 5 card and 10 chips.
7. Determine the number of visitors who will travel to the other culture:-
People in Host Culture Number of Visitors at One Time
3-6 1
7-8 2
9-12 3
13-16 4
17-22 5
23-27 6
8. During the simulation inform both groups of time limits and help observers and visitors get back and forth between cultures at the appropriate time.
9. Provide the observers and each visitor with a set of matching cards, a 3 x 5 card and 10 chips as they enter the culture and retrieve everything but the 3 x 5 card as they leave the culture.
10. Ensure that none of the observers or visitors are allowed to see the Alpha rules.
DUTIES OF THE ASSISTANT DIRECTOR
1. Ensure that the Beta Culture selects an observer - preferably before the explanation of the rules.
2. Instruct the Beta members in the rules of the culture.
3. Have the cards prepared in the proper number and colour at the appropriate time:-
4. When Beta members become discouraged, change the rules, hand out extra 3's and 5's, change the rules and give points for sequences of 4 or even 3, have them record progress on the chalkboard, and exhort them to win.
ORIENTATION
Briefly explain the objectives of the simulation and outline the procedures to be followed.
1. Explanation of the Objectives
2. Divide into two groups
The big group is divided into two smaller groups: the Alpha and the Beta Cultures.
3. Learning and Practising the New Culture
In the real world, cultures develop shared meanings and ways of interacting over many centuries for different reasons. Individuals learn the rules and reasons for behaviour over a lifetime. In this experience, we are going to give you these rules and ask you to learn them in a very short period of time. They may seem complicated at first, but as you practise them, they will appear clear and reasonable.
4. Select an Observer
This person will travel to the other culture and observe the way they behave with the goal of helping later travellers. They should try to figure out what governs the behaviour of the other group, by carefully observing their actions. They may not ask the other culture about the rules - they are to figured out on the basis of observation and later trial and error.
5. Exchange of Observers
Once the Alpha and Beta Culture are well established the observers will travel to the other culture. Each will be wearing a badge with the name of their home culture on it. They have about 5 minutes to learn as much as they can about the foreign culture. They must learn from intelligent observation, asking questions about the rules is not allowed. They cannot interact with the other culture – just observe.
6. Report of Observers
The observer returns to their home culture and describes what they saw and any ideas they have about the values, norms and rules of the new culture. Everyone in the group should be encouraged to develop ideas about the meaning of the observers report so t hat future visitors will have the benefit of the entire group's thinking.
7. Exchange of Visitors
Once each group has had the chance to discuss the report of their observer, each culture continues as before the observers report. Once the culture is re-established, visitors will be exchanged. Visitors are required to wear a badge with the name of their host culture on it. They will be given cards, chips or whatever is used in the culture to be visited. The purpose of the visit is to successfully interact with the other culture. The director will determine the number of visitors and the time spent in the other culture. It is a good idea to allow everyone in each culture a chance to visit the other culture, and for there to be set times for visiting and then report back.
8. End of Game
When everyone has had a chance to visit the other culture, the game will be ended and we will discuss the implications of the experience.
DEBRIEFING
1. Ask the Beta Culture members to explain the Alpha Culture.
2. Ask the Alpha Culture members to explain the Beta Culture.
3. Ask the Alpha members how the Beta visitors appeared to them.
4. Ask the Beta members how the Alpha visitors appeared to them.
5. Ask the Alpha members to describe their feelings and thoughts when they visited the Beta Culture.
6. Ask the Beta members to describe their feelings and thoughts when they visited the Alpha Culture.
7. Ask a Beta member to explain the Beta Culture.
8. Ask a Alpha member to explain the Alpha Culture.
9. Ask members of each culture in which culture they would prefer to live and why.
BaFa BaFA Simulation Game
RULES FOR THE (a ) ALPHA CULTURE
1. The people in the Alpha Culture are very friendly and relaxed. They love to enjoy and develop friendships, but these friendships take place within a fairly strict set of rules. Alphas honour and respect older people. Females are considered to be owned by the men of the culture and strangers do not approach the women unless they have received the OK of the oldest member of the group. If such approaches are made without his OK, the manhood of all members of the group is challenged.
2. The basic transaction around which the members of the group engage in social activities is as follows:
NOTE: The only time the Stipper is put down is when a person wants to insult another person. The person who puts down the Stipper wins the chips in the transaction but loses the friendship.
The 3 x 5 card is used to tell the other person how you feel about him and about the way he carried out the transaction.
The rules which one should obey to get your card signed with an initial are:
REMEMBER THE RULES OF THE CULTURE CANNOT BE TOLD TO STRANGERS !
BaFa BaFA Simulation Game
RULES FOR THE (b ) BETA CULTURE
The basic language is as follows:
E.g.: One Ba
Two BaFa
Three BaFa Ba
Four BaFa BaFa
Five BaFa BaFa Ba
Six BaFa BaFa BaFa
Seven BaFa BaFa BaFa Ba
Here is an example of a possible conversation between Brent Folsum and George Wilson:- Brent Folsum holds up a red 7, pumps twice and says, "Gra, BaFa BaFa Ba," pause "Ora, BaFa BaFa BaFa Ba". Meaning, "I want a green 5 and an orange 7 for the red seven I am holding up." George Wilson raises both elbows up and holds up a green 3 and says, "Rea, GaWa GaWa GaWa Ga". Meaning, "No, I won't give you a green 5 and an orange 7, but I will give you a green 3 for your red 7."
As you can see from the example, one never talks about what he is offering only what he wants.
9. All trade should be made while standing up.
REMEMBER THE RULES OF THE CULTURE CANNOT BE TOLD TO STRANGERS !
Appendix B
Working Assumptions of Healing Racism Programs
No human being is born prejudiced or racist.
To tolerate and participate in racist behaviour, people have to be conditioned to do so, both as perpetrator and victim.
The care of children shapes the lives and attitudes of future adult citizens. Disempowerment of the young, miseducation, and segregation contaminates our thinking, damages our self concept, and diminishes our ability to appreciate each other's differences.
We are not doomed to repeat the past. Human beings are incredibly powerful and are born with the capacity to recover from hurtful conditioning and misinformation. We can turn those hurtful experiences into opportunities for growth.
All people belong to one race, the human race. We are all part of one human family biologically , environmentally, and spiritually--born with a capacity for goodness, naturally seeking knowledge and connection.
All human beings are born with the capacity for loving, co-operative, zestful relationships with all other human beings.
The places where we feel intolerant or emotionally upset toward other people are the guideposts for our own healing.
Source:
http://peace.ml.org/race/race/assump.html
Appendix C
PREJUDICE: A Youth Study
Before the Session
During the Session
HANDOUT
PREJUDICE - LORD, THAT’S NOT A PROBLEM WITH ME!
race
religion
economics
social status
geographical location
politics
yes
no
Do cliques represent a form of prejudice? Why or Why not?
Luke 10: 30-37 (Samaritan/Jewish racial tension was high)
Jesus’ principle here is
Luke 18: 9-14 (Tax collectors worked for Rome and were hated)
Jesus’ principle here is
John 4: 4-18, 27 (This person was an immoral woman and a Samaritan)
Jesus’ principle here is
Matthew 15: 21-28 (This woman was not Jewish)
Jesus’ principle here is
READINGS
More Recently
Appendix D
Attached are two Bible Studies from Challenge magazine, August and September 1992. This is a South African magazine, looking at contemporary South African issues, from a Christian perspective. The attached articles gives a good guideline for a Bible Study on racism and God’s Kingdom, using the Lord’s Prayer as a basis.
Bibliography
Attwood, D. J. E. "Hatred" In New Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pastoral Theology. Eds: David J. Atkinson, and David H. Fields. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1995.
Begley, Sharon. "Three Is Not Enough" In Newsweek. 13 February 1995.
Bridger, F. W. "Race" In New Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pastoral Theology. Eds: David J. Atkinson, and David H. Fields. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1995.
Cheung-Judge, L. M. –Y. "Discrimination" In New Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pastoral Theology. Eds: David J. Atkinson, and David H. Fields. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1995.
Collins, Gary. Christian Counselling. Revised and Expanded Edition. Dallas: Word, 1989.
Duke, Lynne. "You See Color-Blindness, I See Discrimination". Last Week in August handout.
McConnell, C. Douglas. "Confronting Racism and Prejudice in Our Kind of People" In Missiology. Vol. XXV, Number 4, October 1997.
Morganthau, Tom. "What Color is Black?" In Newsweek. 13 February 1995.
Olson, G. Keith. Counseling Teenagers. Loveland: Group, 1984.
Reese, Charley. "Prejudice Does Not Equal Hatred" In Fundamental Baptist News Service. (E-mail discussion group, dcloud@whidbey.net ). 16 February, 1997.
Stott, John. Issues Facing Christians Today. Second Edition. London: Marshall Pickering, 1990.
Major Web Sites
The US Air Force Discrimination Policy http://www.aetc.af.mil/sh-policy.html
The Healing Racism Program
http://peace.ml.org/race/race/Seeing More Than Black & White
http://www.lbbs.org/ZMag/articles/mrtinez2.htmRace and Racism
http://www.princeton.edu/~bnsimon/race.htmlWARC's Definition of Racism
http://www.avalon.net/~foshe/racism.htmWomen Against Racism Committee
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