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1. Introduction

The problem with discussing eschatology is the proliferation of views and frameworks. Within each of these, there are an incredible number of alternatives and issues that are raised on the slightest of pretexts. Add to this the many "end time prophets" who carefully and vigorously point out current events and line them up with the cryptic clues derived from obscure Scripture references, and one begins to get lost in a sea of rhetoric and diagrams. The above cartoon illustrates some of the confusion which many church members feel when dealing with eschatology. What happens when? and how can we know?

The purpose of this paper is to define a framework of eschatology. This is meant to be a structure, or a meta-narrative that will encompass and explain all the various elements of eschatology. It must be consistent with the Biblical references to eschatology. This paper will describe my framework, indicating how it is derived and demonstrating how the material is organised. It is not meant to be a full description of every element of my eschatology.

By necessity, this paper reacts to some of the major issues involved in the traditional eschatological debates, specifically the millennium, after-life and second coming of Christ, as required by the set topic. Other important issues are dealt with along the way, although the intention of this paper is not to create a fully worked eschatology, but rather a framework within which issues can be analysed.

2. The Starting Point: A Definition

In developing an eschatology, the most obvious place to start would be with a definition. The definition of "eschatology" is the "doctrine of the last things" (Travis 1988:228). It is often referred to as the study of the end times. Thus, eschatology aims to define, describe, analyse and apply the concept of the "end times". This is not a concept that is dealt with systematically in Scripture. In fact, the phrase "end times" is not used in the Bible at all. The synonymous phrase "the last day(s)" is the predominant phrase used. Other major phrases used are "last time(s)" and "end of the age(s)".

So, if we go to Scripture and work through the verses, in the order in which they appear in our Protestant Bible, that refer to the last days, we will therefore be studying (in some form) eschatology. The occurrences of these phrases are discussed below. In looking at them, an attempt is made to find major themes and concepts that may arise out of these verses.

3. Survey of Relevant Scripture Passages

It should be noted that some passages are virtually exact repetitions of each other. These will be grouped together and dealt with as one. It is not the purpose of this paper to provide detailed exegetical studies of these passages, but rather to survey them for common (eschatological) themes.

1. Scripture Passages Using the Phrase "The Last Day(s)"

Isaiah 2:2

In the last days the mountain of the LORD’s temple will be established as chief among the mountains; it will be raised above the hills, and all nations will stream to it.

Micah 4:1

In the last days the mountain of the LORD’s temple will be established as chief among the mountains; it will be raised above the hills, and peoples will stream to it.

Motyer (1993:54) indicates that the phrase, "the last days" is better translated as "at the end/culmination of the days", and refers to some undated future, which is neither necessarily distant nor imminent. It seems clear that this concept is linked to the OT concept of the "day of the Lord" (see also Isa 13:6, 9, Ezek 13:5, 30:3, Joel 1:15, 2:1, 11, 3:14, Amos 5:18, 20, Obad. 1:15, Zeph. 1:7, 14).

There are some strong parallels between these expectations and Christ’s coming, and the establishment of His kingdom. Thus in these verses we see a definite reference to judgement, but to a kingdom over all nations. The relationship between God and Israel was meant to extend to all nations. This picture of "multitudes from every nation" is echoed in Revelation (cf. 7:9, 14:6, 19:1, 6).

Hosea 3:5

Afterward the Israelites will return and seek the LORD their God and David their king. They will come trembling to the LORD and to his blessings in the last days.

This is a promise, closely related to the covenant that Israel would be restored from their exile. It is also related to an anticipated "day of the Lord" (cf. 2:5). The restoration of Israel will depend upon them seeking God. It is interesting to note the covenant features of God being "their God" (cf. Gen. 17:7, Exod. 6:7, and esp. Deut. 30:2-3, etc.). It is also related to 3:1-2, where there is a prophecy of the reunification of northern and southern kingdoms, under one leader (cf. 2:2) in the mould (and line) of David. This prediction of a Davidic king becomes stronger in later prophets (cf. Jer. 30:9).

The phrase "in the end times" is sometimes treated as an addition to the text by later redactors from the southern kingdom, since it is a common phrase in prophetic literature from the south.

However, its occurrences in Gen. 49:1, Num. 24:14 and Deut. 4:30 make [this] unnecessary. The term is merely further evidence of the close connection of Hosea with the covenant sanctions (specifically, Deut 4:30). The "end times" are the eschatological age (cf. Isa. 2:2; Jer. 49:39; Ezek. 38:8, 16; Dan. 10:14; Mic. 4: 1), and thus the chapter predicts events that are part of the restoration era, in accord with the eschatology long revealed to Israel (Lev 26; Deut 4 and 30) (Stuart 1987:68).

The verses mentioned in the above quote which are not specifically dealt with in this paper all relate to predictions of future events, which once again links this concept in the OT to a future event. In each case, the future predicted is one of a nation under God, judged and ruled by God’s representative, a king in the mould and line of David.

John 6:39-40

"…And this is the will of him who sent me, that I shall lose none of all that he has given me, but raise them up at the last day. For my Father’s will is that everyone who looks to the Son and believes in him shall have eternal life, and I will raise him up at the last day."

John 6:44

"No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him, and I will raise him up at the last day.

John 6:54

Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up at the last day.

As most commentators (e.g. Carson) point out, the focus of this passage (within its context) is the immediate band of disciples of Jesus. It is these disciples, specifically, that Jesus will keep safe. The initial fulfillment of this is found in 17:11-12. However, it obviously has a more universal application, and also refers to other disciples. The interesting thing to note is that these believers in Jesus already have eternal life (cf. John 5:24), which begs the question: what will they be raised from if they already have eternal life? Carson (1991:292) confirms that this passage refers to "the passing over from condemnation to acceptance, death to life". It is therefore not primarily an eschatological time frame, but rather part of a discourse aimed at dealing with present day existence.

Having said all this, though it is important to note that these words seem to denote a resurrection of the dead at the very end of time. The use of the singular "day" cannot be taken as complete proof of this, as plural and singular forms are often interchanged, yet the context does seem to refer to some final day resurrection. This also applies to another reference in John:

John 11:24

Martha answered, "I know he will rise again in the resurrection at the last day."

Again we have mention of a final day resurrection (although it is interesting to note in passing that Martha was wrong about Lazarus’ resurrection - it occurred on that day).

John 12:48

There is a judge for the one who rejects me and does not accept my words; that very word which I spoke will condemn him at the last day.

It is interesting in the light of what is said immediately above that Jesus insists that those who obey him will not taste death (John 8:31, 52). It is even more enlightening to read 12:31-32 which locates the time of judgement in the death and exaltation of Jesus. John 4:24 indicates that the believer "has the judgement behind him, not before him…. The ‘hour’ that is coming is that of the eschatological future, to which the resurrection of the dead belongs; but it has here already entered the present, since the Christ who raises the dead is here…. [it] bursts on the world through the lifting up of the Christ and embraces the resurrection hour" (Beasley-Murray 1987:76f.). Relating this to John 12:31, we can see a parallel to Rev. 12:10, where the devil is ousted.

This entire passage then is not so much a reference to future resurrection as it is the "most dramatic expression in the Bible of so-called ‘realized eschatology’, i.e. of the eschatological action of God through Christ in the present time" (Beasley-Murray 1987:219). The "last day" seems to refer to both a final day, and a period of time from Christ’s incarnation until that final end of history.

Acts 2:17

"`In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams….

Joel 2:28-3:1

‘And afterward, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your old men will dream dreams, your young men will see visions. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days. I will show wonders in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and billows of smoke. The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD. And everyone who calls on the name of the LORD will be saved; for on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be deliverance, as the LORD has said, among the survivors whom the LORD calls. ‘In those days and at that time, when I restore the fortunes of Judah and Jerusalem…

This passage from Joel is cited here (Acts 2:16-21) and again in different forms in Rom. 10:13 and Rev. 6:12. The phrase, used by Peter, "in the last days", is a change to the passage from Joel, which refers to "afterward". "Peter regards Joel’s prophecy as applying to the last days, and claims that his hearers are now living in the last days" (Marshall 1980:73).

This "age" shall be characterised by signs and wonders accomplished in human beings, and also seen in nature. These signs will be as a direct result of the work of the Holy Spirit, who is "poured out" on all types of people, not just priests and prophets. It should be noticed that this prophecy is linked with the OT concept of the Day of the Lord (discussed below).

2 Tim 3:1

But mark this: There will be terrible times in the last days.

Knight (1992:428f.) indicates that the phrase used here is correctly understood (as in 1 Jn. 2:18) to "not designate some yet-to-come period of days. Rather, Paul is reminding Timothy that the Christian community is living in the ‘last days’ and, because that is true, he must come to grips with what characterizes those ‘days’".

This is further brought out, as from verse 6, Paul uses the present tense to describe these "days". In 3:12, Paul affirms this meaning, when he points out that this is for all Christians, when he says, "In fact, everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted".

Heb 1:2

…but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, and through whom he made the universe.

Heb 9:26

Then Christ would have had to suffer many times since the creation of the world. But now he has appeared once for all at the end of the ages to do away with sin by the sacrifice of himself.

In 9:26, the plural, twn aiwnwn ("the ages") occurs only here in the New Testament, in this usage. It "may reflect an apocalyptic view of world history as a succession of ages" (Lane 1991b:233), but this slender thread seems a very shaky foundation for an entire historical framework. This view, held tentatively by Lane is expressed in the New English Bible translation, "at the climax of history". Most other commentaries and translations do not support this. The whole thrust of this section in Hebrews 9 is to contrast the "many" and the "one" sacrifice, from the "foundation of the world" to "the end of the ages". König states that "Christ’s first coming is therefore the end!" (1989:8). This is in line with Hebrews 1:1-2, which similarly places Christ’s ministry "in these last days".

In Hebrews 1:2, the phrase translated "these last days" (ep! escatou twn @ hmerwn toutwn, literally, "the end of these days"), is an Hebraism, which is actually the writer’s literal transposition of a Hebrew phrase into Greek. As we have begun to see, this phrase "means neither the end of a specific period nor the end of time itself, but rather ‘in the end time,’ which is a well-known Old Testament expression" (König 1989:7). This expression also appears significantly in the Septuagint (LXX), and is most often translated "in these final days" (Lane 1991:5). As in Heb. 9:26, there is a contrast between one era and another. In this case, Guthrie (1983:63) concludes that "‘these last days’ refers to the Christian era, which involves the new era compared to the old….The curtain had finally fallen on the previous age and the final age had now dawned".

James 5:3

Your gold and silver are corroded. Their corrosion will testify against you and eat your flesh like fire. You have hoarded wealth in the last days.

Moo (1985:162) points out that the preposition en is best translated "in", which implies present tense, "and it is the pervasive belief of the New Testament Christians that they themselves were living in the last days". This is further expressed in terms of them thinking that the second coming was near (cf. James 5:8).

2 Pet 3:3

First of all, you must understand that in the last days scoffers will come, scoffing and following their own evil desires.

Jude 18

They said to you, "In the last times there will be scoffers who will follow their own ungodly desires."

Throughout the New Testament we are warned that, as Christians, we will be mocked and persecuted for our faith. "With the advent of Jesus the last chapter of human history had opened, though it was not yet completed. In between the two advents stretches the last time, the time of grace, the time, too, of opposition" (Green 1987:137). Again, this is shown to be referring to the entire age of the church, from Christ’s inauguration thereof to the completion of history.

2. Scripture Passages Using the Phrase "The Last Time(s)"

1 Pet 1:5

…who through faith are shielded by God’s power until the coming of the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time.

1 Pet 1:20

He was chosen before the creation of the world, but was revealed in these last times for your sake.

These two verses seem to indicate a distinction in the way the term "last time" is used. 1:5 seems to indicate that it is still to come, whereas 1:20 indicates that the writer of the verse thought of himself as being already in the last times. Some commentators have expressed the view that the "last times" (plural) is the time of the Christian era, whereas the "last day" (singular) is the day of judgment at the end of history. König (1989:8f.) correctly points out that other New Testament passages do not bear out this distinction. He points out, however, that the more striking distinction is between the first and second halves of 1:20. As discovered in Hebrews 1:1-2 and 9:26, there is a distinction between "the creation of the world" and "these last times". This leads him to conclude that "Christ was not revealed at the inception of such a period … but at the end of time" (1989:10). Thus understood, 1 Peter 1:5 can be seen to be referring to this end time, as Christ’s salvation is revealed in the glory of His incarnation and resurrection. This is borne out by the fact that the word "shielded" (frouroumenou§ ) is a present participle, with the implication of "you are continually being shielded". The focus of "the end times" is therefore Christ and His ministry.

In addition, it should be noted that "in intertestamental - and Christian - sources ["the last times"] denotes the time of fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecies (1QSa 111, Apoc. Bar. 6.8, 78.5)" (Green 1987:197), which Matthew (see below) always specifically and carefully relates to Jesus’ ministry.

3. Scripture Passages Using the Phrase "The End of the Age(s)"

This phrase is peculiar to Matthew, and is used in the following four passages:

Matt 13:39-40

The harvest is the end of the age, and the harvesters are angels. "As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age.

Matt 13:49

This is how it will be at the end of the age. The angels will come and separate the wicked from the righteous

Both of these relate to explanations of parables. It seems clear that they relate some form of judgement, although the introduction of angels as judging agents is unique to these verses. This certainly seems to refer to some future date, as the righteous and wicked have not yet been separated.

Matt 24:3

As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately. "Tell us," they said, "when will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?"

In Greek, the final phrase is governed by a single article, which indicates the disciples thought of these as a single event (or occurring simultaneously), although it is interesting to note that in Mark 13:4, the question deals only with the destruction of the temple. This entire passage is a contentious one, as some people believe Jesus gave answers to two (or even three questions) without explaining which part of his answer related to which question. France (1985:337) contends that Jesus consistently distinguishes events at the end of time (judgement) from the destruction of the temple - but France gives no explanation of this, or demonstration of how "consistent" this actually is. Those who have tried to separate these answers out, have battled to be consistent within this chapter. It seems that Jesus deliberately did not differentiate current events from future ones in terms of what is eschatological and what is not.

Matt 28:20

And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.

From the beginning of Acts, it seems clear that the age Jesus is referring to is the current "age", where Jesus is with us in the form of the Holy Spirit right now. This verse is referring to an ongoing presence of Christ, until the end of this "age".

4. Preliminary Conclusions

Out of the survey of the passages above, a number of issues have arisen. The most important of these is that the concept of the end times is one that begins very clearly with Christ, and, in fact, is focussed on Christ and Christ’s work in history. It is not a special era to be awaited, but is rather that which revolves around Christ’s ministry.

If this is so, then what is the content of eschatology? König (1989:38) defines eschatology as "teleological christology - goal-directed christology. Implied in this understanding is that eschatology is not primarily a category of time. It begins with and has for its object a person and involves his whole history". This does not mean that eschatology is restricted to the exclusive study of the person of Christ. It is also a study of the "things" (i.e. created realities) of creation, of which (and whom) Christ is the chief end. "It must be affirmed that because Christ is creation’s goal, creation obviously reaches its goal when he comes - every time he comes" (König 1989:42).

"If Jesus Christ is the last, then the end has already been reached in him; the end is even now being reached by him; and the end will yet be reached through him. This is because he came, is with us now through the Holy Spirit, and is yet to come" (König 1989:43). There are therefore three stages of Christ’s involvement in the world: Jesus for us, particularly in his crucifixion and resurrection; Jesus in us, primarily through the his work through the Holy Spirit; and, Jesus with us, achieved at His second coming.

The provisionality implicit in the first mode when he acted as our representative, and so reached the eschaton [the end] without us, is overcome by achieving God’s purpose with us. The incompleteness of the second due to our active but defective participation is brought to perfection in the third: on one hand the goal is really reached with us, and on the other our hesitant faith and disobedience are excluded. In other words, Christ realizes God’s purpose with us but not through us (i.e., through our responsibility) (König 1989:46).

In addition to this vital piece of information, the survey of verses also raised a number of other issues that are traditionally discussed under the label of eschatology. These will be discussed below, in the light of the understanding of the end times being rooted in Christ, established above.

At this point there is a temptation to go to the traditional exegetical battlegrounds of Daniel and Revelation (especially chapters 19 and 20). However, the purpose of this paper is to allow the definition of "end times" established above to guide the process of formulating an eschatological framework. As this framework develops, it may be discovered that what have traditionally been major points of contention and division are not eschatological issues at all, but are constructs of theological positions. We thus proceed to dealing with the eschatological issues raised by the survey done above.

4. Eschatological Issues

Many issues were raised by the verses surveyed above. The first important task is to create some method of arranging these issues. The reason that this is important, is that many issues impinge on our understanding of other issues. In fact, eschatology is rather an iterative process than a linear one. As we progress with different aspects of eschatology, we are forced to return and revise previous positions on other issues. Thus, the order of arrangement of material is of vital importance.

Since we have defined eschatology as being centered fully on Christ, it seems right that Christ should be the central focus of arrangement of material in such a study. This paper shall follow the three aspects of Christ’s involvement in history. Due to the overview nature of this study, it is not my intention to repeat what König has so masterfully done in his work on this issue, but rather to summarise some of the important issues that arise and affect eschatology, and then go on to discuss some traditional eschatological elements, showing how they fit within the framework that is being developed.

1. The Day of the Lord

The "day of the Lord" was initially seen as a triumphal end to history, when the LORD would conquer and Israel would be saved. This seems to be the oral tradition around the OT concept. But the prophets reinterpreted the concept, and it became a symbol of judgement. One of the best examples of this shift is Amos 5: 18-27. It is thus a difficult concept to pin down accurately but at very least we know that it was expected in the future. It was a certainty to occur. It would involve God’s coming to human beings (not in a coming "Emmanuel-sense", but a God-with-us, nevertheless). And it would involve judgement. It was God the king coming to judge and rule.

It is clear that Jesus is the fulfilment of these expectations, in both his first advent and his second coming. As we have seen above, this is closely related to the concept of the "last days".

2. The "Last Days"

To summarise what was said above, in the NT, Jesus made it very clear that He was ministering in the last days. The last days were inaugurated by the start of his earthly ministry. The Apostles and other NT writers similarly emphasize the fact that they were living in the last days.

3. Jesus’ Mission

Although it is true that the goal of Jesus’ incarnation can be looked at from many different viewpoints, and that primarily it is usually expressed in terms of the salvation of those who believe, a larger picture can also be seen. This is the picture which can be expressed in two ways: the Kingdom of God, and the Covenant. König (1989:63) correctly sees that the latter encompasses the former. "Covenant is the broader concept in that it necessarily involves both God and humanity". For the sake of this paper, "covenant" is defined as a gracious relationship of love between God and humanity. It is thus really a covenant of grace, initiated by God.

4. The Kingdom of God

It seems fairly clear that the concepts of the "Kingdom of Heaven" (used mainly in Matthew for a Jewish audience) and the "Kingdom of God" are one and the same in the NT.

Although many believe that the kingdom is a future event (possibly in a millennium period) on the basis of some of Jesus’ teachings (e.g. Luke 22:18), there are many other places where it is clear that Jesus and the first apostles taught that the kingdom had already come.

The key passages are Matthew 12:28 and Luke 17: 20-21. Both these passages clearly indicate the kingdom has already come. It is also possible to view Luke 4:18-21 (quoting Is. 61) in similar terms of an ushering in of God’s perfect kingdom in Christ. Christ is also reigning as king right now (Heb 1:3 - past tense). Thus the kingdom has already been established and Christ is now ruling over it. It is a spiritual kingdom but also has physical ramifications.

All the verses that talk about a future kingdom can be understood to be referring either to the "Church age" or to Christ’s second coming, when the saints who live in the tension between the "now" and the "not yet" join their king. There may be debate over the form of the kingdom but Jesus’ words make it clear that his incarnation brought the kingdom in.

5. Covenant

The covenant is enounced in many forms throughout Scripture. Most of these forms are echoes of the pronouncement in Gen. 12:1-3, which promised Abram land, posterity and God’s presence with him. This is repeated in its classic formulation to Moses in Exod. 6:7, where Yahweh says "I will take you as my own people, and I will be your God". This exact formulation of "I will be your God" is repeated in Jer. 7:23, 11:4, 30:22, and Ezek. 36:28 (cf. Gen. 17:7), and all have references to obedience in response to God’s promise. God takes the initiative - he is actively involved in the world (cf. John 3:16). 2 Cor. 5:18-19 indicates that God has reconciled us to Himself, not counting our sins against us, as we attempt to fulfill our side of the covenant, that "we shall be his people". This obligation to be God’s people was only truly met in Jesus Christ, who alone obeyed perfectly. His incarnation was not just a means to an end (the cross), but was a necessary part of becoming our representative in the covenant agreement between humankind and God.

Thus, creation reaches its goal and climax in the person of Jesus Christ. Jesus is truly the content of the covenant. "To say that Jesus is the content of the covenant does not imply that he replaces either God or humanity, but that he is truly both. In fulfilling the covenant he does not make humans superfluous; rather he will achieve for us, in us, and with us the goal God has in mind for us" (König 1989:59). It is beyond the scope of this paper to trace the development of this concept through Scripture, from Genesis 2, through to Revelation, but it can be said that this covenant is one of the major themes that binds the Scripture together in a complete unity.

 

6. The Holy Spirit in Eschatology

From the references in Acts 2 (and parallel passages) it is clear that the Holy Spirit is to play a key role in the time between Christ’s first advent and his second. It is not the intention of this paper to discuss the cessationist issue (whether certain manifestations of the Spirit’s presence have ceased). Suffice it to say that this author can only find Biblical warrant for two positions that are internally consistent: the cessationist position, that believes all "sign gifts" (although this is not a Biblical classification, I shall use it for the sake of clarity) have ceased after the passing of the Apostles and the sealing of the canon; and a position that not only accepts, but also encourages the use and development of all spiritual gifts listed in Scripture. An intermediate position which accepts all the spiritual gifts, but does not wish certain of these to be exercised within a certain church is completely untenable in the light of the Scriptural witness.

The ministry of the Holy Spirit in the end times can also be seen elsewhere, especially in Rev. 11:3-13.

The church of Jesus is called to witness in a very specific way, modeled previously by Moses and Elijah in the Old Testament. Both experienced revelation from God in a dramatic way, both made a significant impact on the world community and both suffered as a consequence. It was these two who were identified with Jesus at the Mount of Transfiguration and they are the models for witness to the world…. Moses is traditionally associated with the burning bush, the giving of the ten commandments and several miracles that accompanied his life. Elijah is traditionally known for his ‘prayer of faith’ (Jas. 5:17-18) and the Carmel experience of fire from heaven. It is not beyond biblical reason to go on to suggest that the calibre of witness required of the Church is that accompanied by ‘signs and wonders’ motivated by the real world of God’s Spirit. It is at this point that John joins the tradition of the charismatic theologian, Luke. Both the gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles present a very clear charismatic theology. The secret of the Church’s witness and its effectiveness is found in its pneumatology. At the same time - it is the powerful witness that causes the world to confront and attempt to neutralise the Church (Pohlmann 1997:152).

7. Persecution

Many of the verses surveyed referred to trials and other forms of suffering. In many other passages in the NT, Jesus and the apostles made it clear that to be a Christian is to live a life of suffering. This is consistent with a view of eschatology that involves tribulation. In fact, the concept of a Tribulation, prevalent in some eschatological views seems to look for a specific interpretation and application of a general concept. The Biblical witness seems to indicate general trials for believers, rather than a specific tribulation period.

There has certainly been waves of great tribulation throughout church history. This would fit with Acts 14:22 which says we must through much tribulation enter the kingdom of God and more importantly with Rev 7:14 where the great multitude that no-one can count from every tribe and language (which surely is the church) is said to be those who have come out of the great tribulation.

5. Further Considerations

In the light of these issues and the Christological framework presented above, we must now turn to traditional element of eschatological discussion, and examine whether these can be included in the emerging structure. Traditionally, eschatological study has been divided into two main parts: personal eschatology (concentrating on death and the after-life) and general eschatology (focussing on cosmic events and Christ). There does not seem to be such a division within the Biblical texts, which seem to focus on both human (personal) and cosmic implications of eschatology. Both personal and general eschatologies have further tended to focus on the "final days", although I trust the discussion above has indicated that this is an incorrect view of Biblical eschatology models. The order of the elements discussed below has been modelled around Christ’s involvement in the final days, beginning with His return, and following the implications from there.

1. The Second Coming

Theology usually distinguishes between the first coming of Jesus, the second coming, and the interim between the two comings. But the New Testament knows nothing of these expressions. The Greek word most commonly used for his comings (ergomai) is used indiscriminately for all three. It is applied to his first advent or incarnation with marked frequency in the Synoptic Gospels (e.g., Matt. 5: 17; 9:13; 10:34-35; 11:3, etc.). It appears also in John (1:11; 3:19; 5:43; 7:28, etc.) and in 1 Tim. 1:15. But this same word is used for the. second advent just as frequently - extremely often in the Synoptics (Matt. 24:30, 44, 46; 25:13, 31, etc.; Mark 13:26; 14:62, etc.) and in Acts 1 :11; 2 Cor. 4:5; 11:26; 2 Thess. l:10; and Rev. 1:4, 7, 8, 11, etc. Further, it is striking that the same term refers to the coming of the Holy Spirit (e.g., John 15:26; 16:7, 8, 13). Yet more remarkable, Jesus himself uses this term about his future coming in such ways that it is often impossible to tell whether he means his resurrection, the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, or his second advent (cf. John 14:18 with vv. 16-17 and v. 28 with vv. 26-27; see also 16:16) (König 1989:16).

Another common word used to refer to Christ’s return is parousia, which refers to an appearing or manifestation. From the Biblical references (e.g. Matt. 26:64, Acts 1:4-11, 1 Thess. 4:16, Titus 2:11-14) it is clear that Christ’s return will be both personal and visible. At His return, the dead will be raised (1 Thess. 4:16). In addition, 1 Thess. 4:17 seems to indicate that a "rapture" will occur simultaneous to Christ’s return. The Greek word used here for "meeting" Christ in the air actually has an interesting connotation - it was that word used of a host going out to greet his guests, and then immediately returning with them to the home. It seems as if the rapture is to be those living believers rising to meet Christ in the air, as He descends, and then descending with Him.

In line with a realised eschatology, Christ’s return will signal the end of history and the end of the experience of linear time as human’s now experience it (see below). It will also be the commencement of the final judgement of all human beings (Rev. 20:13). Scripture tells us that we cannot know when Christ will return (cf. Matt. 24:6, Acts 1:7), but Christians of every age are encouraged to remain vigilant. It is true that anyone, in any age of history since Christ, could look for "signs of the times" and expect Christ to return imminently. This seems to be the way of it. However, with each passing era, the signs seem to be intensifying. We must remain alert and ready for Christ’s return, for that will be the end of the world, and the end of history. There will be no chance to change any decisions made in this life when Christ returns.

2. The Judgement

As stated above, the judgement occurs at Christ’s return. The issue of what happens to those who die before he returns is dealt with below. There is some controversy as to whether believers will be judged. Verses such as Matt. 12:36, 25:32, Rev. 20:13 seem to indicate that everyone will be held accountable for what they do. The righteous will answer for what they have done with what was given them (cf. Matt. 25:14-46), and the unrighteous will be shown the error of their ways, and banished to eternal punishment.

The concept of hell could be dealt with in the section below on the after-life, but it is equally valid to deal with it here. There seems little doubt that hell is an eternal place of conscious torment, characterised by a separation from God. The OT concept of sheol is important here. This Hebrew word can be variously translated. In the early OT it was seen as a place of annihilation, equivalent to the grave, where all souls, the righteous and wicked, go after death.

In response to Greek bi-partite thought (and progressive revelation of God), there was shift in thinking in the intertestamental period, where sheol was seen as the grave (for the body) and hades (a Greek word) or gehenna was the place for the wicked souls to go after death. Righteous souls went to paradise. From the parable of Lazarus and the rich man (Luke 16), we can clearly see that the oral tradition claimed that these were places of conscious existence. This distinction is not always clear, as the words for "hell" appear to be used interchangeably at times. The key new concept, however, was the separation of wicked and righteous souls at death. Jesus clarified these concepts during his ministry, clearly explaining that there was a judgement, and that wicked and righteous would live eternally in separate places. The wicked were destined for hell. The exact timing of this has caused some problems, known as the issue of the intermediate state, which is discussed below.

3. The Millennium

In looking at Christ’s return, we must also deal with the issue of Christ’s kingdom. Although it has been shown above the concept of the kingdom of God is one which attaches itself to Christ’s earthly ministry, some traditional eschatological models incorporate the concept of a literal, earthly kingdom of Christ, and others of a slowly establishing kingdom, known as the millennium.

It should be said that the "millennium" (from the Latin, meaning 1,000 years) is not a doctrine that pervades Scripture. In fact, the real evidence for it, and an understanding of it, comes from Rev. 20:1-6. An understanding of the millennium is therefore linked to an understanding of the interpretation of the book of Revelation. It is beyond the scope of this paper to develop a detailed exegetical framework for Revelation. Suffice it to say that Revelation must be understood as apocalypse, prophecy and letter, since it refers to itself in all these ways. It also seems clear that (in the mould of Jewish apocalyptic) the book is written in cryptic "code", which is meant to be fairly easily decoded by those who know some background, and be totally unintelligible to the casual reader. This results in a multi-layered book, with many symbols and levels of meaning. This was most likely done because the book was written as a letter of encouragement to a persecuted church, and the author did not want those who may have read it to have anything to hold against the Christians.

Because of this, the book is based on OT symbolism. The method of interpretation is to start with the Revelation passage, and look for similar symbols in the OT. The understanding and development of these symbols should be studied, especially if they are also repeated elsewhere in the NT. The Old Testament prophecies cannot be fully understood without reference to the New Testament. König (1989:21) cites von Rad in stating that the unity in the OT prophecies cannot be deduced from the prophecies themselves, but are definitely brought together in Christ.

In dealing with the relationship between the OT and NT, Hasel, after describing the various approaches, emphasises the complexity of the relationships between the Old and New Testaments, and recognises that these relationships exist on many different levels. He thus argues that "the only adequate way to come to grips with the multiplex nature of the relationship between the Testaments is to opt for a multiplex approach" (1991:183). He urges us to accept the validity of many of the aspects found in the methods described above, and not be restricted to just one method. Bright concurs by saying that "no single formulation can be forged into a master key that will unlock all doors" (1967:197).

With this in mind, we can look at Rev. 20:1-6. As Hoekema (in Clouse 1977:156-9) points out, we must understand that Revelation consists of a number of repeated visions. There may be some argument about his exact divisions, but it seems fairly clear by the language and structure, that there is a division between Rev. 19 and 20 (premillennialists would not agree with this, of course). It seems most likely that Rev. 20 is a retelling of the visions that have repeated throughout the book. Hoekema is more certain by stating that "Rev. 20:1 takes us back once again to the beginning of the New Testament era" (in Clouse 1977:160). The thousand years referred to in Rev. 20:4-7 are therefore taken as symbolic, to refer to an extended period of time. During this time, Christians can expect tribulation (20:4), but will be able to be confident in the knowledge that the victory over Satan has already been won, his fate was sealed at Christ’s resurrection, and we are now already reigning as priests and kings in Christ’s kingdom (20:6, cf. 1:6 in the perfect "have been made priests" and cf. 1 Pet. 2:9).

The references to Satan who is "seized" and "bound" are in the aorist form, which refers to completed actions (usually past). This indicates to the reader, that at the time of John’s writing, Satan was already bound (cf. de Smidt 1994). This is not conclusively, of course, as it could be the language of literature and reporting. However, another proof that this passage refers to the NT age is found in Rev. 20:4-6.

This section begins with thrones which are symbols of power and authority, a fact which is emphasised by saying that those who sat on them had been "given authority to judge". "After thus fixing attention on the thrones and on their judgement of authority, every reader raises the question in his mind as to who the occupants of these thrones are" (Lenski 1943:579). The next sentence gives this answer, even though the martyrs are not explicitly stated as sitting in the thrones, this is the obvious implication. Elsewhere, however, this judgement authority is given to all the saints (e.g. Dan. 7:22, 1 Cor. 6:2-3, Rev. 2:26, 3:21). Therefore, (as elsewhere in Revelation) the martyrs are linked with all Christians who persevere. This is the likely reference of the phrase "They had not worshipped the beast…". As Hoekema (in Clouse 1977:166f.) points out, the NIV implies this as a description of the martyrs, whereas the NASB rather uses this phrase to create a second category of souls in heaven (cf. 13:15, 15:2). Thus, these verses refer to the martyrs and to all Christians. The "rest of the dead" refers to "those who died in unbelief" (Lenski 1943:584).

Thus, this is a picture of all Christians of all times, which further adds weight to the argument that the "millennium" refers to the "church age" or the time between Christ’s first advent and his second. There is therefore no "millennium" in the sense of a literal 1,000 year reign of Christ on earth. Christ has been and continues to reign as King of Heaven. And we are co-heirs with him, right now.

4. The After-Life

A valid starting point for eschatology could have been the concept of death, since this is one thing that is absolutely certain for all human beings. The question to be asked, at this point, however, is what happens to someone who dies before Christ’s return? We know that Christ was for us, and is in us now, and will be with us. But if we die before His return, what happens to us? Sections of this paper below have been taken from a previous paper written on this specific issue.

1. Death

"Life and death, according to Scripture, are not to be thought of as existence and nonexistence, but as two different states of existence. Death is simply a transition to a different mode of existence" (Erikson 1985:1169). Traditionally, scholars have identified three types of death: (i) physical death, which is the separation of the soul from the body, (ii) spiritual death, which is the separation of the person from God, (iii) eternal death, which is the finalisation of the state of separateness from God (cf. Berkhof 1941:668).

The book of Revelation, however, refers only to "death" and "the second death" (2:11, 20:6, 14, 21:8). The "second death" (Rev. 2:11, 20:6, 14, 21:8) is defined in Rev. 21:8 and 20:14, where it specifically refers to the "lake of fire". This indicates the distinction between physical death (which everyone undergoes) and spiritual death, which leads to eternal separation from God (cf. Matt. 10:28, Luke 12:4-5). This is related to the judgement, discussed above. Those who are redeemed undergo the first death, but not the second, since they are judged to be holy on the basis of Christ’s death. That is why death is a curse for the unredeemed, since it eternally establishes the state of spiritual death, or separation from God. For the believer, death is not a curse, since the power of death has been destroyed (cf. Rev. 21:3-4, Is. 25:8). Death is a release (cf. Rev. 2:10,14:13, Is. 57:1-2, Phil. 1:21, 23), since it releases believers from physical suffering to a spiritual paradise. Thus, death is something that can be eagerly anticipated (as Paul did in Phil. 1:23). The reason for this hope is the belief in the immortality of the human being.

2. The Resurrection of the Dead

Jesus is called the "firstborn from the dead" (Rev. 1:5) and "the Living One" (Rev. 1:18). Psalm 89:27 is an OT parallel for this passage, that talks of the establishment of David’s kingly line for eternity, and of God’s unshakeable faithfulness to that covenant with David. Heb. 2:14, 15 tells us that Jesus’ death and resurrection have broken the power of death, and our fear thereof. Because He is the firstborn, He has the right to establish a kingship, and we are His kingly subjects, His kingdom (Rev. 1:6).

In Rev. 1:7, we see that when Jesus comes every eye shall see Him, including those that pierced him. This refers back to Zech. 12:10 (also referred to in John 19:37). Lenski believes that it is beyond question that this refers to the fact that the Jews refused to accept Jesus as the very Son of God when He came the first time, but will be forced to do so when He comes again. It is unlikely, then, that this verse is to be taken literally, either in a chronological sense within Revelation or that every person of all time will be resurrected before (or exactly at) Christ’s return. The phrase referring to the people’s mourning (Rev 1:7) also occurs in Matt. 24:30, and does not refer to repentance (Lenski 1943:50).

Rev. 20 is therefore of vital significance for a discussion of resurrection. In line with a realised eschatological model, Hoekema (in Clouse 1977:168f.) argues that the resurrection spoken of in Rev. 20:5 is not a bodily one, since a bodily resurrection is referred to later in 20:11-13. Since it was established above that these verses refer not only to martyrs, but to all Christians who die, Rev. 20:4-6 tells us that at death all Christians are found in heaven, reigning with Christ, as a fulfillment of the promise in Rev. 3:21. This reigning continues throughout the church age, "until Christ shall come again to raise the bodies of these believers from the grave" (Clouse 1977:169).

This is obviously not in the original physical body, since the body dies and decomposes or is destroyed. Thus, the bodies given to souls in the afterlife are necessarily new (i.e. different from the original earthly) bodies (cf. 1 Cor. 15:36-44). The two main views are that either the body is physically resurrected and transformed, or a new heavenly body is created for the soul. Thus, the issue of a resurrection is related to the issue of the intermediate state, in that there may be a temporal distance between the soul leaving the earthly body and gaining an eternal one. The issue of a resurrection, and its timing and nature cannot be completely solved from the book of Revelation alone.

3. The Intermediate State

We now come to a comparison and discussion of some of the views surrounding the so-called "intermediate state", or the issue of life beyond the grave before the second coming of Christ. Part of the problem with this doctrine is that the early Christians believed that Jesus was returning immediately, and thus did not give any real treatment to the issue of what happens between physical death and his return. This thesis has argued that death is the separation of the soul and physical body, and that at the resurrection (whatever that may be) the soul and body are reunited. The intermediate state is the state of the soul from its separation from the body to its reunification with it at the resurrection (which most commonly is thought of to coincide with Christ’s return).

The most popular currently held views of the intermediate state are discussed below:

1. Soul Sleep

This doctrine believes that "the souls of the departed continue to exist, but are in an unconscious state until the resurrection" (http://ccel.wheaton.edu/contrib/exec_outlines/life/life_06.htm). The main arguments in favour of this view are that the Bible often refers to death as falling asleep (e.g. Matt. 27:52, Acts 7:60, 1 Thes. 4:13-15), and that, especially in the OT, it seems as if the dead are referred to as having no consciousness (e.g. Ps. 30:90, 115:17, Ecc. 9:5, 10, Isa. 38:18-19). Both these arguments are easily refuted. The use of metaphor and euphemism should not be taken as a description of fact in "sleeping". For example, Rev. 14:13 refers to death being a "rest from labours". This, too, is metaphoric and figurative, implying rest and a completion of earthly work. The same applies to concept of sleep. The OT passages referring to lack of consciousness reflect an incomplete understanding of God’s revelation. Even if this were not the case, however, it should be noticed that the verses mainly look at death from an earthly perspective (especially in Ecc.), and correctly state that our knowledge of this life ends at death.

But the key argument against such a concept arises from those verses that talk of consciousness of the soul after death, and before the second coming. These verses are found mainly in Revelation (cf. 6:9-11, 7:9-17, 20:4-6), and refer to the "martyrs", as discussed above. Whatever view is taken on these verses, it cannot be denied that they refer to conscious souls after death.

2. Purgatory

The Second ecumenical Council of Lyons in 1274 defined purgatory as follows:

Those who after baptism lapse into sin must not be rebaptised, but obtain pardon for their sins through true penance; that if, being truly repentant, they die in charity before having satisfied by worthy fruits of penance for their sins of commission and omission, their souls are cleansed after death by purgatorial and purifying penalties, . . . and that to alleviate such penalties the acts of intercession of the living faithful benefit them, namely the sacrifices of the Mass, prayers, alms and other works of piety . . . As for the souls of those who, after having received holy baptism, have incurred no stain of sin whatever, and those souls who, after having contracted the stain of sin, have been cleansed, either while remaining still in their bodies or after having been divested of them as stated above, they are received immediately into heaven.

(http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ69.HTM)

The Roman Catholics believe that at the moment of death, judgement is pronounced. "This judgment at the moment of our death will settle our fate forever. The general judgment will not change, but only repeat, the sentence before the whole world" (A. 408, Catholic Catechism, http://www.catholic.net/RCC/Catechism/4/bk4ls37.html). Those who have been saved (are under grace), and are perfect, go to heaven to await the general judgement. Those who are unsaved, go to Hell to await their final judgement. Those who are under grace, but are guilty of venial sins, go to purgatory, a place where these venial sins may be atoned, since nothing that is not perfect can enter Heaven (Rev. 21:27). This is a place of punishment and pain, which are part of the process of atoning for the venial sins.

People on earth may assist those who are purging their sins in purgatory:

[In 2 Maccabees 12], Judah Maccabee and his men pray for their fallen comrades who had "fallen asleep in righteousness" so that they may be "freed from their sins" in the afterlife, and it was a "holy and pious thought" for them to do this. Thus 2 Maccabees endorses praying for the dead that they may be loosed from the consequences of their sins (for it must be the consequences of sin that are in mind since the saved are not sinning in the afterlife). Since it is not pleasant to be bound to the consequences of one’s sins, we can infer some kind of pain or discomfort, and thus the full doctrine of purgatory – a purification (freeing) after death, which involves some kind of pain or discomfort, and which can be assisted by the prayers of the living.

(Akin, http://www.cin.org/users/james/files/how2purg.htm)

As Erikson correctly states, the "major points in our rejection of the concept of purgatory are points which distinguish Catholicism and Protestantism in general" (1985:1181). These include the means of grace and the necessity thereof, the sufficiency of Christ’s atoning work (Heb. 10:14), salvation by works (cf. Gal. 3:1-14, Eph. 2:8-9), and the nature of sanctification (cf. Heb. 10:14, 12:23).

3. Instantaneous Resurrection

This view states that what is commonly anticipated as an end time resurrection is actually an end time revelation of the saints in their heavenly bodies. At death, each saint is immediately resurrected (given a heavenly body), and will then be revealed with Christ in these bodies at his second coming. Rom. 8:19 and Col. 3:4 are used to substantiate this.

Erikson (1985:1182f.) argues against this theory on the basis that it does not account for the passages that talk of a definite future resurrection. He cites Phil. 3:20-21 and 1 Thess. 4:16-17. He also argues that most proponents of this theory believe in a unitary nature of man, which therefore (in his mind) disqualifies their theory. However, Erikson has been too quick to dismiss this as an option. Phil. 3:20-21 could very easily fit into this schema, since it does not necessarily refer to a future bodily resurrection. 1 Thess. 4:16-17 is more problematic, but the comments made above about the resurrection, and those to be made below about time may yet allow this theory to fit the data of 1 Thess. 4:16-17. Obviously similar solutions would need to be sought for passages in Revelation, such as 20:5, 13. The exegesis of Rev. 20:5 was discussed above, and can be seen to support this theory, in part. There is no reason that the "souls" John saw in heaven were not already in "hidden" heavenly bodies (this would be one solution to the perennial debate surrounding how John could see disembodied souls) waiting to be revealed at the second coming.

A more pressing problem, with this theory, however, is what happens to the souls of unbelievers. They cannot be accounted for in this theory, without positing some sheol, soul sleep or annihilation theory.

4. Immortality as Divine Memory

A fairly recent belief is not so much a belief about the intermediate state, but rather about eternity and immortality in general. It is useful to discuss it here, however, as it is a major new factor in Christian thought. It was brought to popular acclaim by Paul Tillich, and suggests that "man’s immortality is the eternal presence of his earthly life within the divine memory" (Hick 1976:215). This is very similar to Tipler’s approach, in his Omega Point Theory (1995). This view maintains that to have one’s individuality remembered by God is the same as having consciousness, which is the same as being.

Although there is much to be said for this theory, it does not seem to adequately fit the Biblical data of individuals in heaven, as seen throughout the Revelation. Some have stated that this may be the solution to the intermediate state, that we exist in God’s consciousness, and are later reunited with our heavenly (or resurrected) bodies. This is necessary when one cannot conceive of a disembodied soul. Another difficulty would be what happens to the unbeliever. If the unbeliever is also retained in God’s memory, this would require God to remember (and therefore think of and partake in) evil eternally. If the unbeliever is not remembered by God, this would imply annihilation, which is not supported by Scripture.

 

5. A Suggested Resolution: Non-Linear Time

Erikson attempts a solution at the end of his section on individual eschatology (1985:1183f.). He correctly points out Biblical principles that indicate that "upon death believers go immediately to a place and condition of blessedness, and unbelievers to an experience of misery, torment, and punishment". He goes on to say that although the evidence is not clear, these seem to be the final places where we know they will end up (i.e. he is arguing that there is no intermediate place), but their experiences in those places are not as complete as they will be after Christ’s return (i.e. he is arguing for some form of intermediate state). He argues, correctly, that this is "philosophically tenable" (1985:1184), but gives little details as to the nature of this intermediate state.

It is certainly true that the evidence for such a state is unclear in Scripture. It is my personal view that this is because as four-dimensioned beings, we have no way of expressing or perceiving a multi-dimensional reality.

It is imperative to understand that the Biblical concept of time is neither "cyclical (in which case eschatology could refer only to the completion of a cycle) [nor] purely linear (in which case eschatology could refer only to the terminal point of the line); it envisions rather a recurring pattern in which divine judgement and redemption interact until this pattern attains its definitive manifestation" (Bruce 19884:362). Thus, eschatology deals not only with what will happen at the end of linear time on earth, but with many issues surrounding the consummation of God’s purpose for the world. König (1989) correctly identifies eschatology with Christ’s incarnation, earthly ministry, death, resurrection, with the Holy Spirit’s ministry and with Christ’ second coming and the "end of the world". Thus, we are living in the "end times" and experiencing the "last things", and have been doing so since Christ came. Christ is thus the First and Last, the Beginning and the End (cf. Rev. 1:17, 2:8, 21:6, 22:13).

However, there is another way in which the time, as a concept, is different from linear time. Since Einstein’s General and Special Theories of Relativity were adopted by the scientific community, many advances have been made in our understanding of time. There is no such thing as absolute time. Time has become "a more personal concept, relative to the observer who measured it" (Hawking 1988:151). Science is showing us that there may be as many as ten dimensions in our physical world, which can have a profound effect on how we understand the four dimensions (width, height, depth and time) that we operate in. The aim of much of modern quantum physics is to discover a single unifying theory that will enable us to understand (among other things) how time works and functions, and possibly give us control over it, as we have relative control over the other dimensions in the physical world. As Hawking says, in conclusion to his book, if we can discover this unifying theory, "it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason – for then we would know the mind of God" (1988:185). The understanding of time is the "final frontier" for scientists.

Since the study of the "last things" is also one of the "final frontiers" of theology, we should be alert to interactions between science and theology (e.g. Tipler 1995). The solution to the intermediate state, is that no time actually elapses on earth between death and resurrection. At death, linear time is destroyed for that individual, and (expressed in terms of linear time) they "jump" immediately to the end time resurrection. This cannot be expressed in linear time, and thus references to the martyrs and others being in heaven in an "interim time" is simply a method for us to express multi-dimensional reality.

Why should there not be a single time sequence in which events can occur simultaneously in different spaces, even though within each space the measurement of time must be in relation to physical movements peculiar to that space? Presumably the divine mind, conscious of all spaces and of the elapse of singular time, would be aware of the temporal relationship between events in different spaces. But the inhabitants of a given space could only be aware of the continuity of time through spaces as an inference from their own memories of life in another space (Hick .1976:290).

It is beyond the scope of this essay (and the writer’s scientific ability) to deal with the inter-relationship of time and eternity, and the relationship between linear time and relative time, but it is precisely this issue that is the heart of the problem, and solution, of the issue of the intermediate state. Thus, although it may seem by some to be a cop-out solution, an appeal to relativity of time may be the only solution.

This may also provide a solution to some of the major issues surrounding a realised eschatological framework, as presented in this paper. The tension between the "now" and the "not yet" may simply arise because this is the only way we can express these concepts within our limited four-dimensional human framework. It is this tension that is at the heart of eschatology. This tension can be solved by having a unified view of eschatology in terms of Christ’s comings, and his being with us in the Holy Spirit.

6. Conclusion

Lamb and Lion Ministries: What Happens When You Die? Soul Sleep or Conscious Existence? http://www.lamblion.com/Web04-10.htm

Christian Classics Ethereal Library: Life After Death http://ccel.wheaton.edu/contrib/exec_outlines/life/

If you have not yet done so, please e-mail Graeme at graeme@codrington.biz now to tell him that you are using his paper.